Cebuano and the Philippines' Major Languages

As of 2026-09-08 · Updated 2026-09-08 · Section: Culture, Religion & Language · 日本語版

If you arrive in the Philippines thinking of it as "a Tagalog country," you will almost certainly be tripped up. Cebu, Davao, Cagayan de Oro, General Santos — in many of the country's fastest-growing cities, the language spoken at home is not Tagalog. This article maps out the real linguistic landscape of the Philippines, centered on Cebuano (Bisaya/Binisaya), through the latest developments of 2025–2026 (the fallout from the MTB-MLE repeal, KWF's efforts on endangered languages, the ICC's recruitment of Cebuano interpreters, and the effects of the Middle East conflict).

1. The big picture first — how many languages are there?

"How many languages" ranges from 130 to 195 depending on how you count. Ethnologue's 184 and KWF's roughly 135 differ mainly in where the line between "dialect" and "language" is drawn — neither figure is simply wrong. 注 Older figures such as "the Philippines has more than 80 languages" still circulate in Japanese-language sources, but current major sources all put the number above 130.

1.1 Constitutional status

• Official languages: Filipino and English (1987 Constitution).
• Regional auxiliary official languages: Article XIV, Section 7 of the 1987 Constitution simply states that "The regional languages are the auxiliary official languages in the regions and shall serve as auxiliary media of instruction therein," and the Constitution itself does not enumerate any language names. (Corrected in the 2026-08-26 source-vetting pass.) The commonly cited list of 19 languages does not come from the Constitution — it comes from the 19 languages designated as media of instruction under the Department of Education's (DepEd) Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) program: it began in 2012 with 12 languages (Tagalog, Kapampangan, Pangasinense, Iloko, Bikol, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Waray, Tausug, Maguindanaoan, Maranao, Chabacano) and added 7 more in July 2013 (Ybanag/Ibanag, Ivatan, Sambal, Aklanon, Kinaray-a, Yakan, Surigaonon) to reach 19. Source: the Official Gazette, "DepEd adds 7 more languages in mother tongue-based education," 12 July 2013 (officialgazette.gov.ph/2013/07/12/deped-adds-7-more-languages-in-mother-tongue-based-education/); DepEd Order No. 74, s. 2009 (institutionalizing MTB-MLE); DepEd Order No. 28, s. 2013 (implementing the MTB-MLE curriculum). 注 Do not write that "the Constitution designated 19 auxiliary official languages."
• Spanish and Arabic are treated as languages to be "promoted on a voluntary and optional basis."

注 A point that trips people up: Filipino ≠ Tagalog (strictly speaking). The constitutional definition of Filipino is a language "to be further developed and enriched on the basis of existing Philippine and other languages." In practice, Metro Manila Tagalog has become the national language almost unchanged, but the two are legally distinct concepts — and that gap fuels the "Tagalog-centrism" controversy discussed later.

2. "Language spoken at home" from the 2020 census

The following is based on the "Language/Dialect Generally Spoken at Home" tabulation from the Philippine Statistics Authority's (PSA) 2020 Census of Population and Housing (2020 CPH). It is a household-level question, and the number of speakers is an estimate, calculated by multiplying the number of households by the average household size of 4.1 persons (2020).

(Total households: 26,388,654. Source replaced with the primary document (2026-08-26): PSA press release, "Tagalog is the Most Widely Spoken Language at Home (2020 Census of Population and Housing)," 3 March 2023, signed by National Statistician and Civil Registrar General Claire Dennis S. Mapa. PDF = psa.gov.ph/system/files/phcd/02%20-Press%20Release%20on%20Language_Dialect%20Generally%20Spoken%20at%20Home_030323_PMMJ_CRD.pdf; HTML = psa.gov.ph/content/tagalog-most-widely-spoken-language-home-2020-census-population-and-housing. The household counts and shares in the table above all match this release's figures (Tagalog 10,522,507/39.9%; Bisaya/Binisaya approx. 4.21 million/16.0%; Hiligaynon/Ilonggo approx. 1.93 million/7.3%; Ilocano approx. 1.86 million/7.1%; Cebuano approx. 1.72 million/6.5%; Bikol approx. 1.03 million/3.9%; Waray 698,745/2.6%; Kapampangan 639,687/2.4%; Maguindanao 365,032/1.4%; Pangasinan 334,759/1.3%; others approx. 2.95 million/11.2%). 注 The same release notes that the total of 26,388,654 households excludes those counted as homeless. Speaker counts are estimates calculated by this article as "households × average household size of 4.1," not figures published by PSA. 注 As of 2026-08-26 the PSA website could not be accessed directly for the PDF itself due to a a human-verification screen from automated-access screening; the figures above were cross-checked via a search index for title, publication date, signatory, and figures.)

(Corrected in the 2026-08-25 verification pass.) The earlier version stated in a single line that "Cebuano/Bisaya numbers 25,584,734, or 22.5%," but this mixed two different tabulations. (Sorted out in the 2026-08-26 source-vetting pass.) The source of the confusion was mixing "two different tables." Table ① is the PSA 2020 CPH "language generally spoken at home" release cited above (3 March 2023); table ② is a separately-sourced speaker-count tabulation. Table ① — the household table — tallies "Bisaya/Binisaya" (16.0%) and "Cebuano" (6.5%) as separate rows (combined: 5,930,202 households = 22.5%, estimated speakers approx. 24.31 million); table ② — the speaker-count table — gives a figure of 25,584,734 (≈ 6,240,179 households equivalent = 23.7%) under the combined category "Cebuano/Bisaya/Binisaya/Boholano," which includes Boholano. 22.5% and 25,584,734 are not figures drawn from the same population, so they must not be presented side by side. ( Source (replaced 2026-08-26): item ① is the PSA press release "Tagalog is the Most Widely Spoken Language at Home (2020 CPH)," 3 March 2023. Item ②'s "Cebuano/Bisaya/Binisaya/Boholano, 25,584,734" is 注 untraced to a primary source (as of 2026-08-26) — which PSA table it derives from could not be identified. Whenever citing item ②, always append the caveat "source untraced.")

(Corrected in the 2026-08-25 verification pass.) Ilocano's household share is 7.1%, not 8.0% (1,863,409 households). The old figure of 8.0% created an arithmetic contradiction — a lower speaker count than Hiligaynon (7.3%) but a higher share. Under the 2020 CPH's language-spoken-at-home data, Hiligaynon (7.3%) narrowly edges out Ilocano (7.1%) for third place (source: as above).

注 Three important caveats. 1. In the census, Cebuano is split across "Cebuano" and "Bisaya/Binisaya" as separate tabulation categories. The 22.5% (2nd place) figure in the table above is the sum of both. Whether respondents call their language "Cebuano" or "Bisaya" varies by region and self-identification, so looking at only one of the two badly misrepresents the true picture. A figure such as "Cebuano has around 10 million speakers" sometimes circulates, and is likely picking up only one half of the split tabulation. The companion article "Basic Tagalog" §2 adopts the same split (Bisaya/Binisaya 16.0% / Cebuano 6.5% / combined 22.5%), consistent with this article. 注 However, "Bisaya" is also used as an umbrella term that includes Hiligaynon and Waray, so taking the combined figure at face value as "the number of Cebuano speakers" can overstate it. Treat it as a range, not a confirmed figure. 2. 注 The "ethnicity" tabulation and the "language spoken at home" tabulation are different things. PSA also publishes a separate ethnicity breakdown, in which Tagalog accounts for only about a quarter (approx. 26%). The 39.9% figure above is language-based. Many articles conflate the two — be careful. 3. 注 At the time of writing, the official PSA website (psa.gov.ph) could not be accessed directly due to automated-access detection, so the table above is quoted via a secondary aggregator. The original table number and publication date are unconfirmed. For rigorous citation, consult the PSA original.

The decline of Kapampangan and Pangasinan shows up clearly in the numbers. Kapampangan had 2.8 million native speakers in the 2010 census, but by 2020 only 639,687 households spoke it at home. Pangasinan had 1.8 million in 2010, versus 334,759 households in 2020 — ranking 10th on the "language spoken at home" list. The 2020 household figures (Kapampangan 639,687/2.4%; Pangasinan 334,759/1.3%) come from the PSA press release "Tagalog is the Most Widely Spoken Language at Home (2020 CPH)," 3 March 2023. 注 The 2010 census figures of "2.8 million/1.8 million native speakers" are 注 untraced to a primary source (as of 2026-08-26) — the original 2010 CPH tables from PSA could not be accessed, so these two numbers should be treated as unconfirmed in origin. 注 Because the units differ ("persons" vs. "households"), a direct comparison isn't valid, but the overall direction — a shift toward English and Filipino in urban areas — is consistent either way.

3. Cebuano (Cebuano/Bisaya/Binisaya/Sugbuanon)

3.1 The politics of naming

The same language goes by four different names depending on context.

In practice, saying "Bisaya" is understood everywhere, but "Cebuano" is the safer choice in writing. In Davao or Cagayan de Oro, saying "that's Cebuano, right?" can get you corrected with "no, it's Bisaya."

3.2 Distribution

Centered on the central Visayas (Cebu, Bohol, Siquijor, Negros Oriental), it extends into the western part of the eastern Visayas and across nearly all of Mindanao (Davao Region, Caraga, Northern Mindanao, Soccsksargen, and more). In Mindanao, Cebuano also functions as a lingua franca among people whose native tongues are other indigenous languages (Manobo languages, Subanon, etc.), which inflates its speaker count.

3.3 Dialectal variation

( Source replaced with specialist literature (2026-08-26): Zorc, R. David Paul (1977), The Bisayan Dialects of the Philippines: Subgrouping and Reconstruction, Pacific Linguistics C-44, Australian National University (xxi + 328 pp.; the standard reference on Bisayan dialect classification; full text available on the Internet Archive at archive.org/details/bisayandialectso0044zorc). This work divides the Bisayan languages into five branches — South, Cebuan, Central, Banton, and West — and treats the various Cebuano varieties as dialects within Cebuan rather than separate languages. 注 Page-by-page correspondence for individual dialect names such as Sialo, Kanâ, and Boholano could not be confirmed (注 untraced to a primary source, as of 2026-08-26). For vocabulary and examples, see Wolff, John U. (1972), A Dictionary of Cebuano Visayan, Cornell University Southeast Asia Program & Linguistic Society of the Philippines (2 volumes; freely available via Cornell eCommons at hdl.handle.net/1813/11777).)

注 Davao's speech is not "a different language from Cebu's Cebuano." Mutual intelligibility is unproblematic, though vocabulary and the degree of code-switching differ. Among Davao's younger generation, a three-way blend of Bisaya + Tagalog + English (so-called Bislish/Davao Tagalog) is an everyday reality.

3.4 Phonological features

• The modern language has five vowels: /a, ɛ, i, o, u/. Before contact with Spanish, however, it had only three vowels (a, i, u), and there remains considerable variation between i/e and o/u (Bisaya / Biseya, kanunay / kanonay, etc.).
• The /l/ → /w/ alternation is frequent: bulan (moon) → buwan, dala → dawa, and so on. A key to spotting correspondences with Tagalog.
• The velar nasal /ŋ/ (ng) can also occur word-initially (ngano, "why"). Often the first hurdle for Japanese speakers.
• Glottal stops and stress carry meaning. In writing these are marked with an acute accent (´) and circumflex (^), but they are almost always omitted in ordinary text.
• The script uses the 28-letter Filipino alphabet. Historically, badlit (a script in the Baybayin family) was used.

3.5 Personal pronouns (the first real hurdle)

The inclusive/exclusive distinction (clusivity) is essential. "Moadto mi" = "we (not including you) will go," vs. "Moadto ta" = "we (including you) will go." This is a distinction neither Japanese nor English makes, and getting it wrong can even change the implied relationship between speakers.

Case markers: absolutive ang (personal names si); indirect sa (personal names ni); oblique og/ug (personal names kang).

Demonstratives come in four grades: kiní/karí (near the speaker), kanâ (near the listener), kadtó/kató (far away), with locative forms dinhi / dinhà / didto.

Negation behaves like a verb: walâ (negates past/present) / dilì (negates future/non-action) / ayáw (prohibitive imperative). 注 The division of labor differs from Tagalog's hindi/wala, so a literal translation sounds unnatural.

3.6 Verbal affixes (the focus system)

Cebuano is an Austronesian-type "focus (voice)" language, in which affixes on the verb — not word order — determine "who or what is the star of the sentence."

( Source replaced with specialist literature (2026-08-26): Wolff, John U. (1966–67), Beginning Cebuano, Parts 1–2, Yale University Press, and Wolff, John U. (1972), A Dictionary of Cebuano Visayan, Data Paper No. 87, Linguistics Series VI, 2 volumes, Cornell University Southeast Asia Program & Linguistic Society of the Philippines (the grammatical sketch at the front and the entries for individual affixes describe the verbal affix system; freely available in full via Cornell eCommons at hdl.handle.net/1813/11777). 注 Whether the affix paradigm table above corresponds one-to-one with Wolff's description has not been cross-checked (注 untraced to a primary source, as of 2026-08-26) — Wolff's terminology differs from later "voice"-based descriptions, so consult the original passage directly if a rigorous citation is needed.)

注 What trips learners up most is letting go of the assumption that "the subject = the actor." Giinóm nakò ang tubig. translates literally as "the water was drunk by me," but it carries no passive-voice implication — it simply means that "the water" is the topic of the sentence.

3.7 Basic expressions

(Source: Wikivoyage, "Cebuano phrasebook.")

注 The dual number system deserves attention. Native numerals tend to be used for counting objects, while Spanish-derived numerals are used for amounts, times, and ages. "Tagpila? — Singkwenta." (₱50) is the norm; people don't usually say "Kalim-an."

3.8 How Cebuano rose to prominence as a "working language" in 2026

• The International Criminal Court (ICC) opened recruitment for Filipino and Cebuano interpreters and translators for former President Duterte's trial (early June 2026, reported by Manila Bulletin, Inquirer, The Manila Times, and others). Manila Bulletin (2026-06-06) reported terms with an annual salary of up to ₱5.1 million. Likely the first case of this scale in which Cebuano is treated as an official record-keeping language in an international judicial proceeding.
• On 11 August 2026, Cebu Daily News reported on "Pulong ni Siloy" (an initiative introducing one Cebuano word a day) — an ongoing, regional-press-led movement to preserve the language.
• On 17 August 2026, Inquirer reported "Acosta's problems with Tagalog may be courtroom jitters." A case has surfaced in which someone's ability to use Tagalog in court itself becomes an issue — 注 showing that the assumption "all Filipinos are fluent in Tagalog" is crumbling even in the judicial arena.

4. Other major languages

4.1 Ilocano (Ilocano/Ilokano) — the language of Northern Luzon and migration

The Hawai'i connection matters decisively. (Number corrected in the 2026-08-26 source-vetting pass.) This article previously stated (via the English Wikipedia) that "approximately 85% of Filipino-Hawaiians speak Ilocano," but when checked against primary U.S. statistics, this was not supported.

Hawai'i State DBEDT, The State of Hawaii Data Book 2024, Table 1.44 ("Top 20 Detailed Languages Other Than English Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English: 2019-2023," a DBEDT estimate based on the U.S. Census Bureau's ACS 5-year PUMS. files.hawaii.gov/dbedt/economic/databook/2024-individual/01/014424.pdf):

Of the 121,597 people across the three Filipino-language categories, Ilocano accounts for 58,297 — about 48% — meaning the "85%" figure does not hold up. 注 Ilocano speakers do have the distinctive feature of the highest share statewide — 22.6% (34,269 people) — unable to speak English "very well" (versus 18.2% for Tagalog). The accurate statement is: "In Hawai'i, Tagalog and Ilocano are essentially tied for first and second place among non-English home languages." This traces back to the sakada (sugar plantation labor migration) of the early 20th century, and it remains true that Ilocano is one of the most widely spoken languages after English in Hawai'i. In December 2025, Maui Now ran an article on a Maui-based lawyer producing an Ilocano-language web series, showing that language-maintenance efforts continue from the diaspora side. There are also large communities in California and Canada.

注 In Japan's recruiting and staffing industry, hiring materials are often built around the assumption "Filipino = Tagalog," but for people from Northern Luzon, Tagalog is a second language.

4.2 Hiligaynon/Ilonggo — Western Visayas

• 注 The figures "approx. 8.6 million native speakers (2020), approx. 9.1 million total" appear to be an Ethnologue-derived series, 注 untraced to a primary source (as of 2026-08-26) (Ethnologue is subscription-only and was not verified in this pass). In the PSA primary series, the 2020 CPH language-spoken-at-home figures show 1,933,512 households, 7.3% (the 7,927,399-speaker estimate is this article's calculation of households × 4.1). In the 2020 CPH's home-language data, it narrowly edges out Ilocano (7.1%) for third place, after the Tagalog and Bisaya-language spheres (added in the 2026-08-25 verification pass. Source (replaced 2026-08-26): PSA press release "Tagalog is the Most Widely Spoken Language at Home (2020 CPH)," 3 March 2023).
• Region: Western Visayas (Iloilo, Guimaras), Negros Occidental, parts of Mindanao (Soccsksargen, North Cotabato).
• A reputation for a "gentle sound": Within the Philippines, it enjoys a reputation as "the softest, most melodic language," attributed to the softness of its intonation and its slower tempo. 注 This is a subjective impression among speakers and the general public, not an acoustically documented academic ranking. Phrasing like "the world's gentlest-sounding language" should be avoided (the metric is unclear and unconfirmed).
• 注 Hiligaynon vs. Ilonggo usage: some argue that "Ilonggo" properly refers to the people and culture of Iloilo, and that "Hiligaynon" is the correct name for the language, while in everyday use the two are used interchangeably.
• Kinaray-a and Capiznon are considered separate languages by linguistic consensus, though some speakers regard them as "dialects of Hiligaynon." Kinaray-a speakers in Antique are sensitive to this treatment.
• It was not formally taught in schools and universities until 2012.

4.3 Waray (Waray/Winaray) — Eastern Visayas

• 2,864,855 persons/2.6% in the 2020 CPH. 注 Meanwhile, a figure of "approximately 3.6 million native speakers in the 2015 census" also circulates widely. A textbook case of figures diverging due to differing survey years and questions — always attach the year and the question asked.
• Region: Samar island, eastern Leyte, Biliran, parts of Masbate and Sorsogon.
• Linguist Jason Lobel identifies about 25 dialects and sub-dialects. The standard is the Tacloban dialect (broadcast/education), with variants including Calbayog, Culaba-Biliran, and Abuyog; 注 what is considered "pure Waray" is the Catbalogan dialect.
• Three vowels, 16 consonants. In many dialects, the proto-Bisayan s shifts to /h/ in grammatical morphemes (a point of contrast with Cebuano).
• It's a running joke that Cebuano and Waray speakers each say the other's speech is "too fast to understand." Leyte island is Cebuano-speaking in the west and Waray-speaking in the east, with a language boundary running through the island itself.

4.4 Bikol

• 2020 CPH: "Bikol/Bicol," 1,033,457 households, 3.9% (estimated speakers 4,237,174 = households × 4.1). Source: PSA press release "Tagalog is the Most Widely Spoken Language at Home (2020 CPH)," 3 March 2023. Note also that in the 2020 CPH ethnicity tabulation, the Bicol Region is the most ethnically homogeneous region nationally, with 78.8% of residents identifying as ethnic Bicolano (PSA, "Ethnicity in the Philippines (2020 CPH)," 3 July 2023). 注 Meanwhile, English-language language databases continue to cite "approximately 2.5 million native speakers (1990 census)" — a figure more than 30 years old still being quoted today ( the source appears to be Ethnologue, but as it is subscription-only, this could not be verified = 注 untraced to a primary source). Always present both old and new figures together with their years.
• "Bikol" is not a single language but a language cluster. It is centered on Central Bikol, and also includes Rinconada, Albay Bikol, Pandan, and the Bisakol of Sorsogon (an intermediate form with Visayan languages).
• Dialects of Central Bikol: Canaman (standard), Naga City, Partido, Tabaco–Legazpi–Sorsogon (TLS), Daet, and Virac — six varieties, all mutually intelligible.
• Three vowels (a, i, u) plus eight consonants from loanwords. It shares distinctive vocabulary with Kapampangan, suggesting historical contact.

4.5 Kapampangan

• 2.8 million native speakers in the 2010 census (7th nationally). By 2020, 639,687 households spoke it at home. 注 Watch for confusion, since figures using different units tend to be listed side by side.
• Region: all of Pampanga province, southern Tarlac, northeastern Bataan, western Bulacan, southwestern Nueva Ecija, southeastern Zambales.
• It does not belong to the Central Philippine language group (it is somewhat more distantly related to Tagalog and Cebuano). Its verbs have five voices (actor, object, goal, locative, and circumstantial), and 注 pronouns cannot be dropped even when there is an antecedent — Tagalog intuitions don't transfer.
• Phonology: /ŋ/ can occur word-initially; /h/ appears only in loanwords.
• Its vocabulary carries heavy borrowing from Chinese (Cantonese, Hokkien), Sanskrit, and Spanish. It is the official language of Angeles City.
• One of the languages with the most clearly documented decline in speakers.

4.6 Pangasinan

• Approximately 1.8 million native speakers in the 2010 census (8th nationally). In the 2020 home-language ranking, 334,759 households, ranking 10th.
• Has the systematic distinction of being the sole member of the Pangasinic branch.
• Five vowels, a consonant system including affricates, VSO word order, agglutinative.
• 注 Considered one of the major languages that has undergone the most pronounced shift toward English, Filipino, and Ilocano. Even within the province, the number of Ilocano speakers is rising.

4.7 Moro languages (Maranao, Maguindanao, Tausug, and others)

In the 2020 census, the Moro (Bangsamoro) population is put at approximately 6.5% of the total population, or about 7.1 million. Source (replaced 2026-08-26): PSA press release "Ethnicity in the Philippines (2020 Census of Population and Housing)," 3 July 2023 (signed by Mapa; based on a household population of 108,667,043). This release explicitly notes that its ethnic categories follow those set by the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP) and the National Commission on Muslim Filipinos (NCMF), and puts the top three ethnic groups within BARMM as Maguindanao 26.4% / Tausog/Tausug 23.3% / Maranao 22.7%. 注 The combined figure of "Moro = 6.5%" itself does not appear in the body of the PSA release, and is 注 untraced to a primary source (as of 2026-08-26) — it is likely a re-aggregation summing 13 groups, so do not cite it as a published PSA figure. The 13 Muslim ethnolinguistic groups recognized by the government are as follows.

Maranao and Maguindanao are closely related (Danao language group) but are separate languages. Tausug is systematically closer to the Bisayan languages, and Cebuano speakers notice shared vocabulary at the word level (注 though mutual intelligibility does not hold). Maranao, Maguindanao, Tausug, and Yakan are among the regional auxiliary official languages under the Constitution. 注 Badjao (Sama-Dilaut) are often described as "sea people," but linguistically they belong to a separate group, the Sama-Bajaw languages, and it is a mistake to characterize them with the stereotype of urban beggars.

4.8 Chavacano (Chavacano/Chabacano) — Asia's only Spanish-based creole

• Asia's only Spanish-based creole language. Most of its vocabulary derives from Spanish (particularly the Andalusian dialect), while its grammar follows the Philippine-language type (e.g., verb-subject-object word order). It also includes vocabulary from Nahuatl (central Mexico).
• 2020 census household figures ( 2026-08-26 source-vetting pass: 注 untraced to a primary source (as of 2026-08-26). The body of PSA's language release lumps Zamboangueño-Chavacano into "other languages/dialects" rather than listing it separately, so the breakdown by variety below could not be cross-checked against PSA's published table. Treat the per-variety figures as of unidentified origin):

注 (Noted in the 2026-08-25 verification pass.) The sum of the household figures by variety above (roughly 106,400 households) does not match the 2020 CPH's estimated speaker count of 428,327. 428,327 is the value of 104,470 households × 4.1 — that is, a figure derived solely from Zamboangueño (or from PSA's "Chavacano" row itself), not a sum across varieties. Treat "approximately 430,000 Chavacano speakers" and the "per-variety household counts" as separate series, and do not try to reconcile them by addition. ( Source (replaced 2026-08-26): the PSA-side series is the PSA press release "Tagalog is the Most Widely Spoken Language at Home (2020 CPH)," 3 March 2023. That release groups Zamboangueño-Chavacano together with Boholano, Tausug, Maranao, Kinaray-a, Binukid, Aklanon, Masbatenon, Surigaonon, and others under "other languages/dialects, approx. 2.95 million households = 11.2%," and no individual household counts appear in the body text. Accordingly, the figures of 428,327 people/104,470 households are themselves 注 untraced to a primary source.) - It splits into two groups based on its substrate language: the Luzon branch (Tagalog substrate) and the Mindanao branch (Cebuano/Visayan substrate). That Zamboanga's Chavacano has a Cebuano substrate is significant given this article's theme. - Official language of Zamboanga City and Basilan province. It falls under KWF's jurisdiction. - 注 The description "Chavacano = broken Spanish" is inappropriate. Chabacano means "vulgar/crude" in Spanish, but linguistically it is an independent, fully-fledged creole language. Spanish speakers hearing it can recognize the vocabulary but cannot follow the sentences.

5. KWF (Commission on the Filipino Language) and 40 endangered languages

The Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino (KWF) is the government body responsible for developing Filipino and for preserving and promoting the Philippines' other languages.

KWF classifies "40 languages" among the country's roughly 135 indigenous languages as at risk of extinction (PTV News, 2025-08-16).

注 Ethnologue's "59 endangered" and KWF's "40" use different counting criteria. Whichever you cite, be sure to name the institution.

5.1 KWF's activities in 2026

• The theme of "Buwan ng Wika" (National Language Month, 1–31 August, under Proclamation No. 1041) for 2026 is "Wikang Filipino at AI: Kasangkapan sa Pananaliksik at Tulay sa Yaman ng Impormasyon" (Filipino and AI: A Tool for Research and a Bridge to the Wealth of Information) — The Summit Express (2026-08-02). 注 As of that report, DepEd's central office had not yet issued a nationwide memo, and individual education districts were issuing their own memos ahead of it.
• ABS-CBN (2026-07-15), "KWF embraces AI to strengthen Filipino, indigenous languages" — reported KWF's policy of using AI to strengthen indigenous languages (headline-level).
• ABS-CBN (2026-08-04), "KWF urges agencies to use Filipino in official correspondence" — urging government agencies to use Filipino in official documents (headline-level).
• GMA Network (2026-08-23), "Mga wika sa Pilipinas na nanganganib maglaho, paano sinisikap na maisalba?" — a feature on efforts to save endangered languages.

Using AI (LLMs, speech recognition) to document minority languages and turn them into teaching materials has become a central theme of Philippine language policy in 2026.

6. The repeal of MTB-MLE (RA 12027) and its aftermath

6.1 What happened

6.2 The content of RA 12027 (based on the LawPhil text)

The "Sections" below are RA 12027's own section numbers. Do not confuse them with the section numbers of RA 10533, the law being amended (noted 2026-08-26).

• RA 12027, Section 1 (amending RA 10533, Section 4): discontinues the system of using the mother tongue as the medium of instruction from Kindergarten to Grade 3. Reverts to Filipino and English, with regional languages used as an auxiliary supplementary means.
• RA 12027, Section 2 (amending RA 10533, Section 5(f); the original text explicitly states "Section 5(f) of Republic Act No. 10533"): however, the mother tongue may optionally be continued in "monolingual classes." Conditions: an approved orthography, a documented vocabulary, cultural literature, grammatical materials, and the availability of trained teachers.
• Section 3: DepEd must evaluate every three years and report, including a recommendation on whether to continue.
• Sections 4–9: penalties, funding, implementing rules (within 90 days), separability, repealing clause, effectivity.
• 注 The law does not specify "in which regions the mother tongue can be used." It is determined school by school, based on whether the requirements are met.

6.3 The 2026 test: PIDS's rebuttal

PIDS (Philippine Institute for Development Studies, a government think tank) published research findings on 9 June 2026 arguing that "language mismatch is a tax on learning."

• Study titles: "Linguistic Mismatch and Learning Productivity: Evidence from Mother Tongue-based Education in the Philippines" / "Language of Instruction Transition in Education Systems (LITES), Philippines"
• Researchers: Michael Ralph Abrigo (PIDS Senior Research Fellow), Aniceto Orbeta Jr. (Research Fellow Emeritus), Romylyn Metila, Jennifer Monje (consultant)
• Abrigo describes language mismatch as "like a tax." Children taught in their mother tongue performed better across Filipino, English, and math alike.

注 This is the crux of "a point that trips people up." The repeal of MTB-MLE is often explained as "because mother-tongue education failed," but PIDS's figures show that "the program was never actually implemented (only 9% of schools met the requirements)" — the merits of the policy and the failure of its implementation need to be argued separately. On the other hand, DepEd Region VII (Cebu) called the repeal "a welcome development" (Cebu Daily News, 2024-10-16), and the business community (Manila Bulletin, 2025-07-08/07-09) also voiced support. Opinion is split sharply between practitioners and research institutions.

• Teacher groups reacted strongly, calling it "the abandonment of the mother tongue" (Manila Bulletin, 2024-10-14); advocates for the mother tongue demanded the law's repeal (Interaksyon, 2024-10-14).
• BusinessWorld (2025-07-07) ran an opinion piece asking whether the shift to English-only "is linguistic genocide, economic convenience, or both."
• PIDS also warned in December 2025 that "rolling back mother-tongue programs will produce learning loss" (Manila Bulletin, 2025-12-23).

7. Language and politics — the critique of Tagalog-centrism

Criticism of "Imperial Manila" targets not only administrative and budgetary allocation but also language policy. The Cebuano-speaking regions have long pointed out an imbalance: by the metric of the PSA 2020 CPH's "language generally spoken at home" household share, [the Bisaya/Cebuano sphere] ranks second (Bisaya/Binisaya 16.0% + Cebuano 6.5% = 22.5%), yet television, film, textbooks, and official documents are almost entirely in Tagalog ( the metric and tabulation label made explicit in the 2026-08-25 verification pass). Rappler's (2025-03-25) "A Bisaya's voice: Even abroad, we carry the divide" argues that this divide persists even overseas.

On the other hand, the political weight of the Cebuano-speaking regions has risen since the 2010s. During the Duterte administration (from Davao), Cebuano was used frequently in national politics, and by 2026 the ICC had gone as far as recruiting Cebuano interpreters. 注 This does not mean, however, that "Cebuano's status has institutionally improved" — if anything, RA 12027 pushed regional languages back out of school instruction.

Also, KWF's push in August 2026 for government agencies to use Filipino (ABS-CBN, 2026-08-04) illustrates a structural pattern: a backlash "from English toward Filipino" can, at the same time, become pressure "from regional languages toward Filipino."

8. The 2026 Middle East conflict and its intersection with language

The Middle East conflict that began on 28 February 2026 is affecting the Philippine economy broadly, and language and human-resource issues are not exempt.

Points to keep in mind from a language perspective: 1. 注 A very large share of Middle East-based OFWs come from Bisaya-speaking areas and Mindanao. If information for returnee and re-employment support is put out only in "Tagalog plus English," it fails to reach some of the affected population. How far DMW and OWWA's outreach can accommodate regional languages is a practical, open issue. 2. Returning OFWs are likely to seek re-employment in BPO (call centers), but BPO hubs are concentrated in Cebu, Davao, and other Cebuano-speaking areas. English proficiency is the central hiring criterion, and whether one's mother tongue is Cebuano or Tagalog is almost never questioned in the selection process. 3. Arabic, used across the Middle East, is a language the Constitution designates for "voluntary and optional" promotion, and has a foothold through madrasa education among Moro communities. A shrinking Middle East labor market could affect this motivation to learn it. 注 However, no statistics showing "a decline in Arabic learning" could be confirmed at the time of writing. 4. The ILO has warned of rising remittance risk (Daily Tribune, 2026-05-19), while BusinessWorld (2026-05-25) reported that "remittances from the Middle East are expected to hold up" — the outlook is mixed, and firm conclusions should be avoided at this stage.

9. Practical notes (for people engaging from Japan)

10. Main sources

Full Japanese version: field "文化・宗教・言語" (Culture, Religion, and Language), "セブアノ語と主要言語" (this site's Japanese edition).